This paper proposes a review of the literature on the role of lexical frequency on the phonetic production of language acquisition data and spontaneous speach data. Language acquisition is vastly influenced by the frequencies of linguistic items learners experience in their contact with a certain language. This phenomenon is called ‘frequency effects’, and refers to the computation of the times the learner is exposed to language data in the input, and the effects such exposure has on his/her linguistic output (Gries 2008). Thus, language learning is argued to be an implicit phenomenon that is based on statistical learning triggered by frequency distributions of structural regularities within a language, as a consequence of the strength of associations between representations (Ellis 2006a). In phonetic-phonological learning, one may argue that regularities from the input are learned under the same principle of frequency effect, that being, the more a speech sound occurs in the input a learner is exposed to, the more this sound will be perceived and produced by the learner. In spontanous speech, however, it is noticed another type of influence of frequency distributions in the léxicon, which is the more frequent a word is the less accurate is its production (Ernestus, 2008). For instance, the word natuurlijk in Dutch is a highly frequent word in the lexicon, so it is very often produced by native speakers as “tuurlijk” or “tuur”, even when speakers have no conscience of such reductions. It is interesting to observe that the portion of the word which is preserved in production in such reductions is the prominent syllable of the word, presuming that the speaker has the listener “in mind” when he/she speaks. This phenomenon and a series of others will be approached in this review and one will try to account for what has been the answer to the question on the effect of lexical frequency on phonetic production by learners and native speakers of the languages.

The current study was conducted in order to explore how language educational policies, motivation, and attitudes, are among the driving factors that can affect students' perception of English language learning. The paper is a descriptive qualitative study with research subjects consisting of three different educational directors and twelve students in primary school, secondary education, and university in Tunisia. Based on the semi-structured interview the results showed that the students had a positive attitude and motivation toward learning English. The comments that were recorded indicated that the younger generation had an instrumental motivation towards English learning more than Integrative motivation. It was observed too that the English language seems to invade the scene, and this is reflected in the participants positive attitudes and motivation toward English as an international language and a language of science and technology. On the other hand, the findings revealed that the educational English policies were regarded by all the interviewees as having a negative impact on learning the English language. Finally, either directly or indirectly, all participants suggested that English should be given more importance and were calling for a change in language policy.

Documentary linguists do not usually engage in crisis and emergency risk communication. During the COVID-19 pandemic and the infodemic associated with it, the challenges faced when communicating risk in marginalised and minority languages became evident, as messages were either translated verbatim from a major language, thus ignoring communities’ communicative habits, or not translated into marginalised languages at all. The virALLanguages project brought together documentary linguists, speakers of marginalised languages and global health specialists, creating a network dedicated to communicating trustworthy messages around preventing the spread of COVID-19 in culturally appropriate ways.
Using the virALLanguages project as an example, we explore how documentary linguists can go beyond the typical scope of engaging and building relationships with the communities they work with, and how this may result in language work that is meaningful and important to all stakeholders involved.

En este análisis de las descripciones sobre violaciones de derechos humanos, adoptaremos un enfoque discursivo a la agentividad como un concepto que establece una relación de causalidad entre una acción, el agente, o sea el perpetrador, y el paciente, o sea la víctima (De Cock y Michaud Maturana, 2014; 2018), a fin de analizar cómo se representa la responsabilidad por dichas violaciones. En español, se puede ocultar al agente de distintas maneras, como con el uso de la construcción impersonal con “se”, de la voz pasiva sin complemento de agente o de nominalizaciones. Sin embargo, para estudiar la agentividad en contextos de abusos a los derechos humanos, no es suficiente analizar la presencia o ausencia del agente (De Cock y Michaud Maturana, 2014; 2018). De hecho, el analista tiene que considerar otros criterios que influyen en la agentividad.
El análisis de la agentividad en discursos sobre violaciones de derechos humanos puede contribuir a la comprensión de temas sociales más amplios como la construcción de la memoria. De hecho, permite estudiar la atribución de responsabilidad a los perpetradores, dado que la agentividad se asocia comúnmente en lingüística con las nociones de intencionalidad, consciencia de acción y responsabilidad (Villalba Ibáñez, 2017; Yamamoto, 2006). Un agente explícito puede en efecto ser considerado como responsable de sus acciones, y, en contextos tabúes, la agentividad puede por lo tanto representar cierta amenaza a la imagen (Pizarro Pedraza & De Cock, 2018). En consecuencia, su análisis es bastante interesante en contextos donde la atribución de responsabilidad es sujeto de controversias, como en contextos de violaciones de derechos humanos. Varios autores se han interesado a este tema. Se destacan los trabajos de Achugar (1999; 2007; 2009), que se interesa al discurso militar en el contexto de la Dictadura cívico-militar uruguaya (1973-85), y de De Cock y Michaud Maturana (2014; 2018), que analizan el informe Rettig, publicado después de la Dictadura de Pinochet en Chile (1973-90). El presente estudio analiza por su parte la agentividad en un contexto contemporáneo, a saber, en un corpus constituido por textos que relatan los abusos cometidos durante las protestas sociales que estallaron en Chile en 2019.
En su análisis del Informe Rettig, De Cock y Michaud Maturana (2014; 2018) identifican cinco niveles de agentividad basándose en tres criterios, a saber, la expresión que identifica al perpetrador, la función sintáctica de esta referencia y la transitividad del verbo. Según los autores, el primer nivel caracteriza las oraciones en las cuales el agente es sujeto de un verbo activo, mientras que el último nivel caracteriza las oraciones en las cuales el agente está totalmente ausente. No obstante, esta tipología ha sido desarrollada para un tipo de discurso específico que sólo relata casos de muerte. En otro análisis (Pécher, 2021), hemos hallado la necesidad de desarrollar una tipología de agentividad que podría aplicarse a un corpus más amplio que incluye otros tipos de violaciones de derechos humanos. En esta

Panel studies have revealed two distinct patterns of change across the lifespan: some individuals follow along with community-wide trends (life-span change), whereas others move away from the community (retrograde change), (Buchstaller et al. 2017). But while research on the basis of large-scale samples provides insights into the complex interaction between intra-speaker malleability and larger community-wide trends, panel data has not yet sufficiently explored “the relationship between variation in the individual and the group” (Meyerhoff and Klaere 2017: 32).
Sociolinguistic theorising assumes that this panel sample covers linguistic consequential life-stages, including the transition into emerging and full adulthood (Arnett 2000), and increasingly acute linguistic marketplace pressures, especially for speakers in linguistically-sensitive occupations.
The present study examines the linguistic choices of one individual, Charlotte, as she moves from being a student at university to being a Ph.D. student and finally a university lecturer (3 time points: ages 20, 24, and 29 years). I discuss the results of an acoustic analysis of 474 tokens of FACE and 566 tokens of GOAT, measuring F1 and F2 at 20 – 80 percent and combine it with the results of auditory coding.
Results show that both vowels are changing in Charlotte’s speech as she ages. However, contra previous reports that FACE and GOAT behave in lockstep, results from auditory coding reveal that at all three time points the majority of FACE tokens are realised as monophthongs, but that the closing variant is decreasing over time while the ingliding variant is increasing, suggesting a slight shift towards localized variants.
Linear mixed effect models reveal a significant lowering over time in the monophthongal FACE from 2014 to 2019. Significant raising of monophthongal GOAT is also evident from 2010 to 2014 and reversing itself from 2014 to 2019. A change in F2 is identified only in the monophthongal GOAT variant, which slightly moves to the back from 2010 to 2014. The combination of auditory coding and acoustic analysis thus shows a change over time which may be motivated through external factors such as the linguistic marketplace pressures or peer pressure at university.
In 2019 the shift in vowel types of the FACE vowel seems to reverse itself,? which might be due to dialect awareness as Charlotte has now taken up a teachingposition at a Northern University.
The finding that intra-speaker malleability, while embedded into the community grammar, harbours complex and revealing patterns fully support voices calling for a more differentiated account of the variation that characterises linguistic choices within the individual (see Meyerhoff and Klaere 2017), especially across our life histories. Small, ethnographically rich, linguistically detailed panel studies serve to broaden our understanding of the relationship between the individual and the community, especially during community-wide change in progress.

La presente investigación tiene como objetivo fundamental profundizar en cómo se desarrolló la enseñanza del castellano en las escuelas de Cataluña durante el siglo XIX a través de los manuales escolares bilingües que incluyen la lengua catalana y la castellana. Su aparición se enmarca en una coyuntura histórico-lingüística particular marcada por la consolidación de la diglosia, en que la lengua española logró penetrar a esferas a las que había permanecido ajena en el pasado y en las que había predominado el catalán, como es el caso de la enseñanza. Así, en el sistema educativo catalán decimonónico se pasó a enseñar en y el castellano, así como su gramática. Este hecho contrastaba con la realidad lingüística de las aulas, en las que el alumnado únicamente conocía el catalán (SOLÀ CORTASSA, 1984; PUJOL I FABRELLES, 1998). En total, es objeto de estudio una serie textual (HAßLER, 2002; ZAMORANO AGUILAR, 2013) compuesta por doce manuales escolares bilingües publicados a lo largo de la centuria mencionada, que se someten a un análisis partiendo de los postulados teóricos y metodológicos de la historiografía lingüística en general y de la gramaticografía escolar en particular, en la línea de los planteamientos de SWIGGERS (2004, 2009). A partir del examen detenido de estas fuentes primarias se constatan las diferentes estrategias didácticas por las que los autores apostaron, materializadas en distintos tipos de obras, así como el papel que se le otorga al catalán y las implicaciones metodológicas que ello tenía. En definitiva, se pretende contribuir a dilucidar cómo se concibió y qué particularidades tenía la enseñanza de la lengua castellana, que no era la propia del alumnado de Cataluña, mediante un procedimiento específico, las prácticas bilingües, y su repercusión en la estructura y los contenidos lingüísticos de las obras.

This paper uses corpus data and methods of distributional semantics in order to study English clippings such as dorm (< dormitory), memo (< memorandum), or quake (< earthquake). We investigate whether systematic meaning differences between clippings and their source words can be detected. The analysis is based on a sample of 50 English clippings. Each of the clippings is represented by a concordance of 100 examples in context that were gathered from the Corpus of Contemporary American English. We compare clippings and their source words both at the aggregate level and in terms of comparisons between individual clippings and their source words. The data show that clippings tend to be used in contexts that represent involved text production, which aligns with the idea that
clipped words signal familiarity with their referents. It is further observed that individual clippings and their source words partly diverge in their distributional profiles, reflecting both overlap and differences with regard to their meanings. We interpret these findings against the theoretical background of Construction Grammar and specifically the Principle of No Synonymy.

Em 9 de junho de 2022 uma audiência desastrosa comprovada por um vídeo que foi divulgada no dia 20 de junho de 2022 por inúmeros meios de comunicação brasileiros que pretender induzir uma criança a desistir do aborto legal devido estupro. Uma violação grave ao princípio da dignidade humana que pode estar ocorrendo quotidianamente pelo Brasil sem qualquer discussão. Onde ficam o Estado democrático de Direito e a democracia, a legalidade e a moralidade, porque abundam relatos de preconceitos e arbitrariedades? Em relação ao já determinado corpus podemos questionar o seguinte: trata-se de mais um fato isolado? Estamos defronte a um discurso? Trata-se de um discurso jurídico corrente? Esse discurso é direcionado a quem? Existe alguma repetibilidade na reprodução deste
discurso? Ou o tratamento que o judiciário dá para as populações vulneráveis é especialmente diferenciado? Considera-se que esta transcrição apresenta materialidades linguísticas que possibilitarão um gesto de análise do discurso pechetiana. O corpus limitar-se-á a transcrição parcial da audiência judicial em que serão eleitas algumas sequências discursivas dentre as subsequências já explicitadas acima para compor a presente análise. Buscar-se-á, assim, vincular a linguagem às suas condições de produção, sua ideologia e sua memória. Derradeiramente, como resultado considera-se que neste corpus há a concretização de um discurso jurídico corriqueiro, cruel e racista que tem sido reproduzido inconscientemente e sem contestações no Brasil, que busca legitimar a violência estatal institucionalizada em detrimento da população minoritária e vulnerável, especialmente quanto às crianças periféricas.

Introduction: Like most acoustic studies on other languages, many studies on Spanish vowels have also failed to consider contextual variations. While some studies on Spanish have evaluated the effect of lexical stress on the phonetic properties of vowels (i.e. duration, F1, F2, F0) they have not taken into account their interaction with consonantal context.
Objective: To evaluate the effect of lexical stress and consonantal context on the duration of Argentine Spanish vowels /a e o/ produced by men and women.
Methodology: Twenty native speakers of Argentine Spanish (10 men and 10 women) read 54 real words, ending in stressed and unstressed vowels /a e o/ and preceded by the voiceless stop consonants /p t k/. The beginning and end of vowels were manually located by observing the waveform and spectrogram of each segment in Praat 6.1.14 software (Boersma &amp; Weenink, 2020). The duration of each vowel was computed as the time (in milliseconds) between the beginning and the end of the vowel. A mixed ANOVA was performed to analyze differences in
Spanish vowel duration values.
Results: Significant differences in vowel duration were observed as a function of participants gender; vowels produced by female speakers were longer than those produced by male speakers (p=.031). In addition, stressed vowels were significantly longer than unstressed vowels (p<.001). A significant interaction was observed between the factors vowel, lexical stress and consonantal context (p<.001). Post-hoc analyses showed that the duration of unstressed vowels /a e o/ was not affected by the previous consonant while consonants affected the duration of stressed vowels. The duration of /a/ and /o/ was significantly longer when the vowels were preceded by the consonants /k/ and /p/ compared to the duration of these vowels in the context of /t/ (in both cases p<.001). In the case of /e/, this stressed vowel evidenced a longer duration in the context of /p/ compared to the other contexts (in both cases p<.001).
Discussion: In line with the findings in Chládková et al. (2011) for Madrid and Lima Spanish, vowels produced by females were longer than those produced by males. Regardless of gender, stressed vowels had a longer duration than unstressed vowels, as shown by other studies on Spanish (Romanelli et al., 2018). In addition, consonants affected the duration of vowels, as evidenced by previous studies.
Conclusion: consonantal context affects the duration of stressed vowels, making it necessary to consider this factor when analyzing the properties of Spanish vowels.

Avaliações e adaptações dos elementos necessários para a compreensão adequada dos materiais informativos têm sido realizadas, elencando os índices que mensuram a dificuldade de compreensão da leitura de um texto –
leiturabilidade – e legibilidade como os principais atores nesse processo. O presente artigo reúne aspectos ressaltados na avaliação e na adaptação de materiais informativos em saúde para indivíduos idosos e com baixo nível educacional no período de 2015-2019. Para tal, uma consulta às bases Google Acadêmico, PubMed e Portal Capes foi conduzida, resultando em 13 artigos de avaliação e 5 de adaptação de materiais. Observou-se o uso de medidas de
complexidade de texto, tais como softwares, bem como associações entre leiturabilidade, legibilidade às demandas da idade e de letramento em saúde. Um consenso teórico é preciso no uso da terminologia da área e há pouco destaque para as discussões sobre o impacto do nível educacional dos participantes, opondo-se ao letramento em saúde. Por fim, o desenvolvimento de mais pesquisas associando fatores como nível educacional e letramento em saúde são sugeridas. Em português, observou-se uma lacuna na criação de medidas em português, na elaboração de tarefas e nas correlações entre as medidas de leitura e o contexto educacional e etário.